Questions about Islam and Education

1. We would like to thank you for the opportunity you have given us for conducting this interview. As the first question we would prefer to inquire about the relation between Islam and Education or to put it differently, how significant is the problem of education within the Islamic Worldview?

Syed Farid al-Attas: The emphasis that Islam places on education is very strong. From its inception, Islam forbade the representation of living beings in the mosque. In the churches of Christianity, drawings of biblical scenes were common as a means of educating illiterate people about Christianity. This was not an option in Islam. As a result, it became important to learn to read. The Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him) also stressed the acquisition of knowledge (talab al-‘ilm) as far as China. I do not think the stress here is on geographical distance but rather the relative strangeness of the Chinese vis-à-vis the Arabs. The Muslims were asked by the Prophet to seek knowledge even in a relative strange place like China.

Education has been a central feature of Islam from the very beginning.  Because of the centrality of the Quran as the word of God, Muslims have always been obliged to learn to recite Arabic.  This applied even to peoples for whom Arabic was not their mother-tongue, but who may have, nevertheless, used the Arabic script for their languages.  This was the case with the Persians, Turks, Afghans, Indians and Malays.  As a result, the rate of literacy was relatively high from the early days of Islam. Furthermore, the impetus to the cultivation of knowledge was due to both practical consideration, such as the need to know the qiblah (direction of Mecca for prayer), as well as the higher purpose of knowing God’s creation and taking it seriously by studying it.

2. Could we speak of an Islamic theory of education based on sacred sources in Islam (in particular Koran)? If the answer is affirmative then what are the parameters of such a theory?

Syed Farid al-Attas: It depends on how we define the question, i.e. if we define education as the teaching, learning and assimilation of knowledge.  Therefore, much of our understanding of the philosophy of education in Islam hinges on our conception of knowledge. Knowledge in Islam has been defined as the “arrival of the soul at the meaning of a thing or an object of knowledge” (Al-Attas, 1980: 17).  Meaning here refers to the results of the valid methods of interpretation such as tafsir and ta’wil established by the authority of the Quran.  The empirical world is regarded as constituted by signs (āyat), that is, words and things amenable to interpretation by valid methods as the āyat (verses) of the Quran are. Knowledge, therefore, refers to the “recognition of the proper places of things in the order of creation, such that it leads to the recognition of the proper place of God in the order of being and existence” (Al-Attas, 1980: 17-19).        

The formal definition of education in Islam as given by Al-Attas is:

Recognition and acknowledgement, progressively instilled into man, of the proper  places of things in the order of creation, such that it leads to the recognition and acknowledgement of the proper place of God in the order of being and existence” (Al-Attas, 1980: 22).

In Islam, the definition of education is not confined to epistemological concerns but also includes ethical and other dimensions, presented succinctly by al-Attas as follows:

Islamic education shall aim at a harmonious formation of the human personality.  This education shall not only strive for the harmony of thought and action, instinct and reason, feelings and emotion, but also for depth of knowledge and beauty of character.  One can experience harmony also in a negative way.  The Islamic concept of harmony includes the formation of a certain type of character rooted in humility towards God, love towards fellow creatures, perseverance in times of affliction, honesty, decency, uprightness, courage to say the truth, a balanced attitude towards issues which involve human emotions, etc. etc. Thus, education without an emphasis on character formation has practically no value in Islam (Alatas, 1954).

This conception of knowledge that sees knowledge and education not merely as the acquisition of information or the capacity for explanation and analysis but also connects these processes to the nature of God and reality and a human ethic of responsibility by no means implies that only what is in revelation is knowledge or that only what is apparently compatible with revelation is true knowledge.  Muslims believe that all knowledge originates from God and that such knowledge arrives to humans by way of various channels. Islamic epistemology, that is the study of the sources, limits and methods of knowledge and the nature of truth from the point of view of Islam, affirms the reality of existence and the reality of things and the possibility of knowledge of both.  Such knowledge comes from God and is acquired via the authority of Revelation, the authority of the learned, sense perception, reason, and intuition. This in turn implies that both induction from observation and deductive reasoning are valid methods of knowledge acquisition (Al-Attas, 1990: 1) Here, Al-Attas here draws our attention to al-Taftāzānī’s commentary on the `Aqā`id of al-Nasafī which contains the creed of Islam rendered in concise form and which contains the epistemological position of Islam (Al-Attas, 1990: n.1).

As knowledge in Islam is intimately related to belief, it can be said that the Islamic worldview, that is, that worldview that can be abstracted from the Quran and the sayings and traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (May Peace be upon him) consists of both the creed and articles of belief as well the various sciences.  Together these form the total consciousness of Islam. Knowledge, therefore, is part of faith. It is obligatory for all Muslims to pursue knowledge and it is obligatory for Muslim societies to cultivate the various branches of knowledge.  It is for this reason that the various sciences (`ulūm) were studied, developed and promoted by Muslims for centuries prior to the European Enlightenment.

3. In your view, what is the difference between an Islamic theory of education in comparison to other theories (both religious and secular)? In other words, what are the points of commonalities as well as divergences?

Syed Farid al-Attas: One of the most important differences between Islamic and other philosophies of education is that the causes (sabab) or sources of knowledge are given in the `aqidah itself. This means that the pursuit of knowledge in all its forms and methods becomes a religious obligation, not just an encouragement.

4. Assuming an Islamic theory of education is possible and additionally it will find an opportunity to be realized then what are the outcomes of this system, i.e. those who study within the parameters of this paradigm are able to interact with other competing systems of education in the world?

Syed Farid al-Attas: If we define Islam in terms of not just knowledge (‘ilm) but practice (‘amal) as well, then it is obvious that knowledge and practice are both required of Muslims. The area of practice is not to be defined in a narrow sense and restricted to worship but should include work, leisure, politics, etc.

5. If it is possible to assume that there are theories of education which could be considered as 'Islamic' in nature then is it feasible to take another step and think of an educational system based on Islamic Principles? If the answer is affirmative then could you kindly explain the parameters of such a system?

Syed Farid al-Attas: A system of education based on Islamic values and the Islamic philosophy of education can be designed. A glance at the classification of the sciences that were cultivated by the Muslims and taught in their institutions of higher learning will serve as an introduction to the more practical aspects of Islamic education.  The learned Muslim scholars of the past had usually divided knowledge into two kinds – the rational sciences (al-`ulum al-`aqliyyah), and the traditional sciences (al-`ulum al-naqliyyah).  The first, also referred to as the intellectual sciences, is knowledge that arises from man’s capacity for reason, sense perception and observation.  The second, also referred to as revealed knowledge, is not knowledge that dispenses with the intellect but was devolved to man via Revelation (Ibn Khaldun, 1971: chap. 6). The Traditional Sciences are (i) the sciences of Quranic recitation and interpretation; (ii) the sciences of Prophetic traditions (hadith); (iii) Jurisprudence and its principles (fiqh and `usul al-fiqh); (iv) Speculative theology (`ilm al-kalām); (v) the science of Sufism (al-tasawwuf). The Rational Sciences are (i) Logic (`ilm al-mantiq); (ii) Physics (al-`ilm al-tabi`i); (iii) Metaphysics (al-`ilm al-ilahiyyah); (iv) Geometry (`ilm al-handasa); (v) Arithmetic (`ilm al-artamatiqi); (vi) Medicine; (vii) Geography; (viii) Chemistry; (ix) Biology; (x) Music (`ilm al-musiqi); (xi) Astronomy (`ilm al-hay`ati); (xii) Science of civilization (`ilm al-‘umran).

Any system of education erected by Muslims must take into account the significance of Muslim learning in the past and build on those strengths and be inspired by the earlier achievements. The significance of Muslim learning is as follows:

Translations and commentaries.  It has often been assumed in popular accounts of the history of science and philosophy that the Muslim scholars who were contemporaneous with the European Middle Ages were simply followers and translators of the Greeks, Persian and Indians and that they merely continued the philosophies of Peripeteticism and Neo-Platonism.  For example, Alfred Weber stated that Muslim philosophy was “more learned than original, and consists mainly of exegesis, particularly of the exegesis of Aristotle’s system…” (Weber, 1925: 164, n. 1). This was only one of their roles.  In addition to being great translators of and commentators on Greek philosophy and science, the Muslims also made original contributions in various fields.

But even in the area of the transmission of the ideas of other civilization, the Muslims were very active.  The ancient Hindu idea of the sphericity of the world, which founded its way into Latin works after the fifteenth century, giving Columbus the idea that the earth was shaped like a pear, is an example (Hitti, 1970: 570).

The Emphasis on Causality and Sense Perception. The philosopher ibn Sina substituted a material cause for Aristotle’s metaphysical cause as the middle term in the syllogism.  Ibn Rushd was critical of Neo-Platonism and emphasised the importance of causality for valid knowledge.  His ideas in the form of Latin Averroism made an important contribution to European critical discussions on religion, which led to the Enlightenment.

The idea of causality had practical applications. For example, Muslim physicians in 14^th century Spain freed themselves from unscientific ideas opting for the explanation of the plague in terms of contagion and not divine punishment.  The famous physician, ibn al-Khatib said in a work, The Plague:

… the existence of contagion is established by experience, study, and the evidence of the senses, by trustworthy reports on transmission by garments, vessels, ear-rings; by the spread of it by persons from one house to another, by infection of a healthy sea-port by an arrival from an infected land…by the immunity of isolated individuals and …nomadic Bedouin tribes of Africa…It must be a principle that a proof taken from the Traditions has to undergo modification when in manifest contradiction with the evidence of the perception of the senses (Ibn al-Khatib, cited in Meyerhof, 1931: 340).

The Scientific Method. While the Greeks were more taken in by the deductive method and underplayed sense perception and observation, Muslim scientists went beyond this and based their investigations on observation and experimentation.  Muslim scientists Jabir ibn Hayyan, al-Biruni, Umar Khayyam, ibn Sina, ibn Yunus, al-Tusi and others all worked in their own or in state laboratories.  This had to do with their belief in the reality of this world and that knowledge of it was possible and that knowledge of it pointed to the creator.

A very important example of the application of the scientific method was ibn Haytham’s work on optics.  He proved Aristotle’s thesis that light is reflected from objects to the eye and not the reverse as was thought.  What is important about this is that he arrived at this conclusion via observation and experimentation with lenses, by testing the angles of reflection.  The impact of these experiments on the development of the scientific method is something that should be elaborated on.

The Contribution to Institutions of Learning.  Even the modern university, as we shall discuss later, owes its origins to the Muslims.  The idea of the degree most likely came from Islam.  In 931 A.D. the Abbasid caliph  al-Muqtadir had all practicing physicians examined and those who passed were granted certificates (Ar. sing. ijāzah).  In this way, Baghdad was able to get rid of its quacks (Hitti, 1970: 364). 

The ijāzah was the principles means by which scholars and Sufis passed on their teachings to students, granting them permission to carry on their teachings.  Although the learned scholars of Islam taught in formal institutions of learning such as the maktab, the kuttab, the madrasah and the jāmi`ah, the degree was personally granted by the scholar to the student.

Even in the area of everyday life, there were significant contributions of Muslims.  During the Crusades, for example, the Europeans were introduced to sugar, silk, spices, incense and dyes, gold coinage, and methods of banking. The English word sugar comes from the Arabic word sukr. Sherbet comes from the Arabic sharbat, referring to water sweetened with sugar and flavoured with fruits. Syrup comes from the Arabic sharāb which is a medicated sugar solution (Hitti, 1970: 335).

There is no time here to go into the details of an Islamic educational system. However, it is important that scholars and educationists in the Muslim world study both the Muslim educational institutions of the past as well as the well-established Western institutions today. As far as the Muslim institutions of the past are concerned there were the following:

The Maktab and Kuttab (Writing Schools). These were schools providing basic instruction in the reading and recitation of the Quran during the first century of Islam. These schools started out as rooms in the homes of private teachers.  Such places set aside for instruction came to be known as maktab or kuttab, both words derived from the Arabic root “to write” (Tibawi, 1972: 26). Later on they expanded to provide elementary education in calligraphy, poetry, grammar, arithmetic, penmanship, horsemanship, and swimming.  The difference between the two seemed to be that maktabs were for lower elementary education whereas the kuttabs were for older students (Nakosteen, 1964: 46; Makdisi, 1981: 19). For the first four centuries of Islam, the maktab was the principle institution where the basic skills of reading and writing could be obtained. Writing schools were found in Spain, Sicily, Africa and throughout Iran and the Arab world.

The Mosque (Masjid) Schools. The masjids or everyday mosques (which did not hold the Friday congregational prayers) were often sites of instruction for elementary education as well as more advanced education in the various Islamic sciences.  Baghdad alone had three thousand such schools by the third century of Islam and were also found throughout the Muslim world.  It was quite often that well-known and learned scholars founded and taught at these schools (Nakosteen, 1964: 47; Makdisi, 1981: 21-22).

The Madrasah. The educational institutions described above were limited in terms of the quality of teachers and facilities or scope of instruction.  A new type of school, the madrasah or school of public instruction, was developed to provide an alternative. These were established as charitable trusts (awqaf; sing. waqf).  The first of such institutions was the renowned Madrasah Nizamiyah of Baghdad, established in 457/1065 by the famous Abbasid vizier, Nizam al-Mulk, who later developed a vast network of madrasahs across the Arab world.  These schools were provided with the best professors possible, libraries and even offered scholarships to students (Nakosteen, 1964: 49; Makdisi, 1981: 27). It was at this time that teachers came to be paid by the state. Education was fully subsidized and students sometimes received free lodging and food.  The main subjects taught were Qur`anic exegesis, theology, jurisprudence and the principles of jurisprudence, grammar and syntax, the Traditions of the Prophet (hadīth), logic and, sometimes, philosophy and mathematics (Robinson, 2001: Appendices 1-3; Tibawi, 1972: 30).  In addition to the above, other subjects such as literary studies, history, politics, ethics, music, metaphysics, medicine, astronomy and chemistry were also taught. In the time of Salah al-Din al-Ayyubi (Saladin) it is known that a similar range of courses were taught (Dodge, 1961: 36, 40-52).  

The Jāmi` (congregational mosque) schools.  The jāmi` housed a number of educational institutions such as the halqa study circle), the zawiya and madrasah, the latter two focusing mainly on instruction in law, unlike the madrasahs established independently of a jāmi` (Makdisi, 1981: 12, 13, 21).

The Jāmi`ah (University). One such jāmi`, that of Al-Azhar in Cairo.  This was established during the last quarter of the 10^th century by the Fatimids to teach the principles of jurisprudence, grammar, philosophy, logic and astronomy (Dodge, 1961: 18).  Its name was later changed to Jāmi`at al-Azhar, jāmi`ah here meaning universal in terms of a complete course of studies (Dodge, 1961: 13; Wan Mohd Nor, 1998: 183). It is here that we may find the origins of the modern universitas.

It is important that Muslims study the origins of the modern university in terms of its Muslim roots and reinstate the strengths that that system had to offer and integrate that with the best that is found in the contemporary Western tradition.

6. In the contemporary situation it seems impossible to talk about a full-grown Islamic Educational System. But we have now schools in various parts of Europe and America where private sectors have been able to establish 'Islamic Schools' where the curriculums and programs are attempted to be designed in accordance to Islamic guidelines. In your view, are these schools to be considered as Islamic in terms of Islamic system of education due to their allegedly explicit adherence to principles such as Hijab or is it feasible to think of these schools as Islamic in the sense that they have been able to experience some forms of Islamic Education in practice? In sum, what are the relations between these schools' practices and the Islamic theory of Education?   

Syed Farid al-Attas: Islamic schools in Europe and other countries where there are Muslim minorities need not necessarily be merely dressed up with Islamic externalities but lacking in substance. It is possible to establish a system of education that is founded on the Islamic philosophy of education and values in many European societies. The following must be included:

1. All knowledge comes from God.

2. Muslims had never recognised the division of knowledge into religious and secular.  All knowledge comes from God but such knowledge is either about God (as in theology, for example) or about God’s creation (as studied by the various rational sciences).

3. Islam recognises various sources and methods of knowledge acquisition, including sense perception and reason.

4. The acquisition of the various sciences is obligatory upon all Muslim societies because this is one way of taking God’s creation seriously.  Furthermore, the study of the world of empirical things points to the Creator.

Today, however, educational underdevelopment is a major factor in the general underdevelopment of Muslim societies.  The United Nations Development Program released the Arab Human Development Report 2003 in which the central problems facing Arab education in the 21st century are diagnosed. One issue highlighted was the problem of the lack of quality education. The report cites gaps between the needs of the labour market and the provisions of the educational system. For example, almost 45 million women in the Arab world are illiterate, and as many as ten million children have had no schooling at all. Investment in research and development is less than one-seventh of the world average.

There may be better prospects for Muslim institutions of learning in the West, where there is more funding and less interference from corrupt politicians.

References: 

Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Al-Naquib Al-Attas (1980) The Concept of Education in Islam: A Framework for an Islamic Philosophy of Education, Kuala Lumpur: Muslim Youth Movement of Malaysia (ABIM).

Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1990) On Quiditty and Essence, Kuala Lumpur: Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization.

Dodge, Bayard (1961) Al-Azhar: A Millenium of Learning, Washington, D.C.: The Middle East Institute.

Hitti, Philip K. (1970). The History of the Arabs. Tenth Edition (New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Ibn Khaldun, ‘Abd al-Rahman bin Muhammad (1971) Muqaddimat Ibn Khaldun, Beirut: Mu`assasat al-`a‘ala li al-Matbu‘at.

Makdisi, George (1981) The Rise of Colleges: Institutions of Learning in Islam and the West, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Nakosteen, Mehdi (1964) History of Islamic Origins of Western Education A.D. 1800-1350: with an Introduction to Medieval Muslim Education, Boulder: University of Colorado Press.

Meyerhof, Max (1931) “Science and Medicine”, in Sir Thomas Arnold & Alfred Guillaume, eds., The Legacy of Islam, London: Oxford University Press, pp. 311-355.

Robinson, Francis (2001) The `Ulama of Farangi Mahal and Islamic Culture in South Asia, Delhi: Permanent Black.

Tibawi, A. L. (1972) Islamic Education: Its Traditions and Modernization into the Arab National Systems, London: Luzac and Co.

Weber, Alfred (1925) History of Philosophy. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons.

Wan Mohd Nor Wan Daud (1998) The Educational Philosophy and Practice of Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Attas: An Exposition of the Original Concept of Islamization, Kuala Lumpur: International Institute of Islamic Thought and Civilization.